How many stratagems are there?

Thirty-six, arranged in six groups of six: Winning (1-6), Contending (7-12), Attack (13-18), Confusion (19-24), Combined (25-30), and Defeat (31-36). Each one has a four-character Chinese name, a standard pinyin reading, and a literal translation. This page lists all thirty-six with all three versions of each name.

Is "36 strategems" a misspelling?

It is a very common one, and it is worth handling rather than ignoring. People type "strategems" instead of "stratagems" often enough that the misspelling has become its own search phrase. Both spellings refer to the same thirty-six tactics. The correct English word is "stratagem", from a Chinese compound usually written 三十六计 (san shi liu ji). If you searched for the misspelling, you are in the right place.

Who wrote the 36 Stratagems?

Nobody is known to have written them. The collection has no named author, and its compilation date is genuinely disputed: the material draws on Chinese military writing from the Warring States period onward, but it was assembled into its present form much later, and the earliest complete edition generally cited is an early Qing printing. It reads like a compilation by one or more editors rather than a single authorial work, so asking "who wrote it" is a better question than it sounds.

Are the 36 Stratagems still relevant today?

As a way of reading situations, yes. As a script you can execute, no. Most of the thirty-six describe conditions that rarely hold in ordinary work: a visible opponent, an existing advantage, time pressure, and permission to burn relationships. What transfers is the underlying habit — ask where the real leverage is, look at what support the visible thing depends on, and check whether winning this exchange is even worth entering. That habit is why the collection is still read eight centuries after its earliest complete edition.

What is the difference between the 36 Stratagems and Sun Tzu's Art of War?

They are different genres, not competing versions of one book. The Art of War is a systematic doctrine: chapters on terrain, command, organisation and deception, argued at length. The 36 Stratagems are thirty-six compressed tactical formulas with no argument attached, built for memorisation and for the specific case where you are the weaker side. Sun Tzu explains why a position matters. The 36 name the position you are probably in.

Which stratagem is the most important to learn first?

Stratagem 2, Besiege Wei to Rescue Zhao (围魏救赵), and Stratagem 36, Retreat Is the Best Option (走为上). The first teaches you to look at what your opponent depends on rather than at what they are threatening. The second teaches you that not entering is a move. A collection read in order teaches you tactics; a collection read out of order teaches you judgement, which is the part that actually transfers.

Is using the 36 Stratagems manipulative or unethical?

The stratagems themselves contain no ethics, so the question has to be answered by the relationship you are in. In a war, or in a negotiation with someone who is also negotiating honestly, they are tools. Against a friend, a family member, or anyone who has extended trust, several of them — 10, 25, 27 and 33 especially — are simply manipulation wearing a classical name. The text assumes adversarial conditions and rarely bothers to say so. That assumption is yours to check.

Are the 36 Stratagems Taoist?

No, and the confusion is understandable. They are usually shelved next to Taoism because both are Chinese and both get attached to the wider "ancient Chinese wisdom" framing, and because several of them echo Taoist ideas about indirectness and not forcing. Genealogically they are not: this is a military strategy text, and it belongs with Sun Tzu and with Chinese military thought generally. The connection you will sometimes see drawn is thematic — a resemblance in attitude, not a shared lineage. The Tao Te Ching is a different book about a different subject, and is worth reading on its own terms.

36 Stratagems: A Plain-English List of All 36

The Six Groups

The collection is not thirty-six unrelated tricks. It is six situations, six at a time, and the order runs from confident to desperate — winning first, losing last. Knowing which group you are in is most of the skill. Applying a Winning Stratagem when you are losing is the most common mistake, and it is what makes people describe the 36 Stratagems as cynical when they are really just misapplied.

Winning Stratagems · 勝戰計

Stratagems 1–6. The first six cover the one situation the classical text cares most about: you are outmatched and win anyway. That is why they lean so hard on concealment, on attacking somewhere other than the obvious place, and on making your opponent spend resources to solve a problem you did not create. If you are the stronger party, these are the least interesting six on the list.

The limit: Wrong for you when you are already stronger — a stratagem is a correction for asymmetry, not a flourish for power.

Contending Stratagems · 敵戰計

Stratagems 7–12. The second six are about managing an opponent you cannot remove. They cover manufacturing something that does not exist, moving by a route nobody is watching, letting rivals damage each other, hiding intent behind a friendly face, and accepting a small loss to protect something larger. This is the group most people find useful in ordinary work, because most work is contention rather than war.

The limit: Wrong for you when the relationship matters more than the outcome.

Attack Stratagems · 攻戰計

Stratagems 13–18. The third six are the most active set. They are about forcing a decision: disturb what is hidden, revive what is dead, pull the other side out of its strong ground, loosen your grip until something relaxes, offer something cheap to reveal something valuable, and go straight at the command point instead of the crowd.

The limit: Wrong for you when the other side is not watching, because a forced decision with no audience is just a decision.

Confusion Stratagems · 混戰計

Stratagems 19–24. The fourth six work through disorder rather than through force. Pull the support out from under the thing that is still standing; fish in water that has already been muddied; leave a visible shell behind; close the door on what is already inside; stabilise the far flank so you can concentrate on the near one; and use access you were granted for one purpose to reach a different goal.

The limit: Wrong for you when confusion is expensive for you to create, or when you will be blamed for it later.

Combined Stratagems · 并戰計

Stratagems 25–30. The fifth six are about the space between what appears true and what is true — the group where the stratagems come closest to straight deception. Replace a load-bearing part while nobody is looking; make the warning land on the right target by pointing at the wrong one; play dull so people stop watching; invite commitment and then remove the way back; improve the appearance of something weak; and turn the position you were given into the position you wanted.

The limit: The riskiest group. Each of these depends on being discovered, and discovery costs more than the win was worth.

Defeat Stratagems · 敗戰計

Stratagems 31–36. The last six cover what to do when you are losing — and that is why the collection ends where it does. It includes the two most quoted formulas in the set, the Empty Fortress and Retreat Is the Best Option, and it makes a blunt argument that almost everything above is worthless if you cannot recognise the moment to stop. Reading only the first thirty is the most common mistake people make with this text.

The limit: The group to read first, honestly. If you recognise your own situation in this section, the other thirty are a distraction.

All 36 Stratagems, Plain English

Each entry below gives the four-character Chinese name, its pinyin, a close literal translation of those characters, and the plain-English statement of what the tactic does. The title of each one links to the full page for it, with a worked example.

Winning Stratagems (1–6)

1. Deceive the Heavens 瞞天過海 · mán tiān guò hǎi: Literally: Deceive the heavens in crossing the sea. In plain English: Hide your move inside what looks ordinary.
2. Besiege Wei to Rescue Zhao 圍魏救趙 · wéi wèi jiù zhào: Literally: Besiege Wei to rescue Zhao. In plain English: Relieve the besieged by attacking the attacker's home.
3. Kill with a Borrowed Knife 借刀殺人 · jiè dāo shā rén: Literally: Borrow a knife to kill. In plain English: Use another actor's force to achieve your objective.
4. Wait at Leisure While the Enemy Labors 以逸待勞 · yǐ yì dài láo: Literally: Use rest to await labor. In plain English: Conserve your strength while the other side exhausts theirs.
5. Loot a Burning House 趁火打劫 · chèn huǒ dǎ jié: Literally: Take advantage of the fire to loot. In plain English: Exploit a crisis while the other side is consumed by it.
6. Make a Feint to the East and Attack in the West 聲東擊西 · shēng dōng jī xī: Literally: Clamor east, strike west. In plain English: Create a diversion, then strike where the opponent is unprepared.

Contending Stratagems (7–12)

7. Create Something from Nothing 無中生有 · wú zhōng shēng yǒu: Literally: Generate something from nothing. In plain English: Create an appearance that alters the enemy's decisions.
8. Openly Repair the Walkway, Secretly March to Chencang 明修棧道，暗度陳倉 · míng xiū zhàn dào, àn dù chén cāng: Literally: Repair the plank road openly, cross Chencang secretly. In plain English: Display one line of preparation while advancing by another route.
9. Watch the Fire from the Opposite Shore 隔岸觀火 · gé àn guān huǒ: Literally: Watch the fire from the opposite bank. In plain English: Stand aside and let rivals weaken themselves.
10. Hide a Dagger Behind a Smile 笑裏藏刀 · xiào lǐ cáng dāo: Literally: Hide a dagger inside the smile. In plain English: Mask hostility with warmth.
11. Sacrifice the Plum Tree to Preserve the Peach Tree 李代桃僵 · lǐ dài táo jiāng: Literally: Let the plum tree wither in place of the peach tree. In plain English: Accept a lesser loss to preserve the greater interest.
12. Take the Opportunity to Pilfer a Goat 順手牽羊 · shùn shǒu qiān yáng: Literally: Lead away the sheep in passing. In plain English: Take a small advantage when it costs little.

Attack Stratagems (13–18)

13. Beat the Grass to Startle the Snake 打草驚蛇 · dǎ cǎo jīng shé: Literally: Strike the grass to startle the snake. In plain English: Probe the surface to reveal what is concealed underneath.
14. Borrow a Corpse to Return the Soul 借屍還魂 · jiè shī huán hún: Literally: Borrow a corpse to return the soul. In plain English: Revive a dead form with a new purpose.
15. Lure the Tiger from the Mountain 調虎離山 · diào hǔ lí shān: Literally: Lure the tiger away from the mountain. In plain English: Draw the opponent out of the terrain that gives them strength.
16. To Catch Something, First Let It Go 欲擒故縱 · yù qín gù zòng: Literally: To capture, first release. In plain English: Loosen control so the target exhausts itself and becomes easier to take.
17. Throw a Brick to Attract Jade 拋磚引玉 · pāo zhuān yǐn yù: Literally: Throw a brick to attract jade. In plain English: Offer something modest to draw out something more valuable.
18. Capture the Ringleader to Catch the Gang 擒賊擒王 · qín zéi qín wáng: Literally: To seize the bandit, seize the king. In plain English: Target the command point instead of the outer mass.

Confusion Stratagems (19–24)

19. Remove the Firewood from Beneath the Cauldron 釜底抽薪 · fǔ dǐ chōu xīn: Literally: Pull the firewood from under the cauldron. In plain English: Remove the support that keeps the visible force alive.
20. Fish in Troubled Waters 混水摸魚 · hún shuǐ mō yú: Literally: Muddy the water to catch fish. In plain English: Exploit disorder to secure advantage.
21. Shed the Cicada's Golden Shell 金蟬脫殼 · jīn chán tuō qiào: Literally: The cicada sheds its shell. In plain English: Leave behind an outer form while the real self slips away.
22. Shut the Door to Catch the Thief 關門捉賊 · guān mén zhuō zéi: Literally: Close the door to catch the thief. In plain English: Enclose the intruder and deal with them decisively.
23. Befriend the Distant, Attack the Near 遠交近攻 · yuǎn jiāo jìn gōng: Literally: Befriend the distant, attack the near. In plain English: Stabilize distant relations so you can concentrate force on nearby threats.
24. Borrow a Route to Attack Guo 假途伐虢 · jiǎ tú fá guó: Literally: Borrow the route in order to attack Guo. In plain English: Use access granted for one purpose to pursue another aim.

Combined Stratagems (25–30)

25. Replace the Beams and Pillars 偷梁換柱 · tōu liáng huàn zhù: Literally: Steal the beams and replace the pillars. In plain English: Substitute the structural supports without immediate detection.
26. Point at the Mulberry, Curse the Locust 指桑罵槐 · zhǐ sāng mà huái: Literally: Point at the mulberry, curse the locust tree. In plain English: Criticize one thing so another target understands the warning.
27. Pretend Foolishness, Not Madness 假癡不癲 · jiǎ chī bù diān: Literally: Feign stupidity, not insanity. In plain English: Appear dull so others underestimate your real intention.
28. Lure Them Onto the Roof 上屋抽梯 · shàng wū chōu tī: Literally: Lead them up to the roof, then remove the ladder. In plain English: Draw them into commitment, then cut off retreat.
29. Adorn the Tree with False Blossoms 樹上開花 · shù shàng kāi huā: Literally: Make flowers bloom on the tree. In plain English: Use appearance to enhance what is otherwise ordinary or weak.
30. Turn the Guest into the Host 反客為主 · fǎn kè wéi zhǔ: Literally: Reverse guest and host. In plain English: Move from dependent position to controlling position.

Defeat Stratagems (31–36)

31. The Beautiful Woman Stratagem 美人計 · měi rén jì: Literally: The beautiful woman stratagem. In plain English: Use attraction to distract and destabilize decision-makers.
32. The Empty Fortress Stratagem 空城計 · kōng chéng jì: Literally: The empty city stratagem. In plain English: Display calm openness to make weakness look like a trap.
33. Counter-Espionage 反間計 · fǎn jiàn jì: Literally: The reverse-spy stratagem. In plain English: Turn the enemy's spies or channels of intelligence back against them.
34. Inflict Injury on Yourself 苦肉計 · kǔ ròu jì: Literally: The flesh-pain stratagem. In plain English: Accept visible injury to make a deception believable.
35. The Chain Stratagem 連環計 · lián huán jì: Literally: The linked-ring stratagem. In plain English: Set one move inside another so the chain itself becomes the weapon.
36. Retreat Is the Best Option 走為上 · zǒu wéi shàng: Literally: To leave is best. In plain English: Withdraw before destruction when the situation is lost.

Which Stratagem Do You Actually Need?

Because the thirty-six are easy to browse and hard to choose from, it is more useful to work backwards from the situation. These are the ones people reach for most, with the specific question each one answers.

2. Besiege Wei to Rescue Zhao — They keep escalating against me. Stop answering the threat they named. Go after what the threat depends on. Almost every version of this problem dissolves once you change which problem you are solving.
9. Watch the Fire from the Opposite Shore — Two parties are fighting and I am being asked to pick. You do not have to. The stratagem is to be useful to neither, and to let the thing you would have spent effort on consume itself.
19. Remove the Firewood from Under the Pot — The problem keeps coming back no matter how hard I push. You are attacking the visible part. Find the boring, unglamorous thing holding it up — usually a dependency, a sponsor, an unexamined assumption — and change that instead.
21. Shed the Cicada's Golden Shell — I am trapped by something I am attached to. Leave behind the form that others can see — the role, the project, the visible identity — while the thing that actually matters to you moves somewhere else.
23. Befriend the Distant, Attack the Near — I am spread too thin. Stop trying to improve everything at once. Repair the relationships that are not currently demanding anything, so you can put full weight into the one that is.
32. The Empty Fortress Stratagem — I am weaker than they think and they are about to find out. Do not perform strength you do not have. Be visibly untroubled and open. The gap between what you can actually do and what you appear ready to do is the whole tactic.
36. Retreat Is the Best Option — I have already lost this one. This is the last stratagem, and it is the one the collection was built around. Walking away with your options intact beats winning a fight that costs you everything you walked in with.

If you want the reasoning behind the choice rather than the choice itself, start with how to apply the 36 Stratagems, or with the plain-language entry point at what the 36 Stratagems are if the framing of the collection is new to you.

How to Use Them in Business, Negotiation, and Leadership

In business

The useful move in a competitive market is almost never the frontal one. Before competing on the axis you are weaker on, check what your competitors are structurally depending on: a supplier, a channel, a habit their customers have, a piece of credibility they have built over years. Stratagems 2, 19 and 21 all describe that move. The other habit worth borrowing is Stratagems 9 and 36 — knowing which fights to stay out of is usually worth more than knowing how to win them.

In negotiation

Negotiation is where the collection is most often quoted and most often misused. What actually helps: control the sequence rather than just the outcome, because a sequence you designed is a field you shaped (Stratagems 6 and 35); give something modest to learn what is genuinely valuable to the other side (Stratagem 17); and hold the ability to leave as a real position rather than a threat (Stratagem 36). What does not help is concealment applied to a counterpart who is also being straight with you. That is where this section starts to become dishonest rather than clever.

As a leader

Read as a leadership tool, the 36 Stratagems are diagnostic rather than prescriptive. The question each one asks is: where is the leverage, and what does the visible thing depend on? Answering that about your own team is uncomfortable and productive. What you should not do is aim them at people you have made responsible to you — the ethics of that are not addressed anywhere in the text, and the Taoism for leadership page exists partly as the deliberate counterweight. A strategist who only ever points the indirect move at an adversary has misunderstood what wu wei was for.

What the 36 Stratagems Are Not

The collection is old enough that its reputation has outgrown it, and most of what gets attributed to it is wrong. Four corrections are worth making before you use it for anything.

They are not a manual with a method. There is no step order, no argument, and no theory of victory. Thirty-six compressed formulas, assembled without explanation. Whatever system you feel in them, you are supplying it.

They are not symmetric advice. Almost all thirty-six assume you are the smaller or weaker party and the other side is an opponent. Read as general life guidance, they will make you worse at the relationships they are most often quoted in defence of.

They carry no ethics. Not one of the thirty-six tells you when a tactic is legitimate. The classical assumptions — adversarial conditions, a known enemy, permission to spend the relationship — are stated nowhere and honored everywhere. You have to supply the ethics yourself or you will borrow theirs.

They are not uniquely Chinese wisdom about harmony. This is a military strategy text that gets shelved next to the Tao Te Ching because the framing is convenient, not because the two are related. Compare the Tao Te Ching directly: the 36 tell you how to handle an opponent, and the Tao Te Ching mostly tells you to need less of a fight. Reading both is more useful than either alone, and reading them as one text is worse than not reading either.

Where to Go Next

Browse all 36 stratagems — cards by difficulty, with the full series.
What are the 36 Stratagems? — the short conceptual entry point.
How to apply the 36 Stratagems — the practical route.
The Thirty-Six Stratagems in English — reading guide.
Comparing English translations — which version to start with.
The best Tao Te Ching translations — the companion question most people ask next.
Compare Tao Te Ching translations — side by side, chapter by chapter.

36 Stratagems: Complete Guide